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Bibliography, Chronology, Inventory, 1965-1976 →

Introduction to the Direct Action Project

LGBT Direct Action Bibliography, Chronology, and Inventory, 1965-76

Marc Stein

October 2025

            Social movements have long engaged in direct action protests, including demonstrations, marches, parades, pickets, riots, and sit-ins. These are spectacular and embodied events, often drawing extensive public attention, serving expressive and strategic purposes, and contributing to social and political change. Political activists have used many other types of tactics, including boycotts, education, litigation, and lobbying, but in specific historical circumstances they have organized direct action protests to struggle against inequality and injustice.

            In 1965, influenced most directly by the African American civil rights movement, U.S. LGBT activists began a sustained period of direct action that lasted for more than a decade. Highly creative, emotionally powerful, and politically inspiring, LGBT direct action protests challenged policies and practices while also breaching boundaries between the private and public, the invisible and visible, and the silent and spoken. Scholars have studied a small number of these actions, including the Dewey’s sit-in (1965), the Annual Reminders at Independence Hall (1965-69), the Compton’s Cafeteria riot (1966), the Stonewall riots (1969), the Congress to Unite Women protest (1970), and the first “gay pride” marches (1970). The vast majority of LGBT direct action protests, however, have not been researched extensively. This bibliography, chronology, and inventory, covering more than 1,150 unique events from 1965 to 1976, is meant to encourage further research on the broad and diverse history of LGBT direct action.

            The LGBT Direct Action Bibliography, Chronology, and Inventory was first co-published by OutHistory and Queer Pasts in March 2023; this is the fourth edition. The first version identified 646 direct action protests from 1965 to 1973; this one covers 1152 protests from 1965 to 1976. The new version adds 141 protests in 1976 and 22 newly-identified protests and modified protest dates from 1965 to 1975; it also adds newly discovered media stories for previously-identified direct actions from 1965 to 1975. One of the goals of adding a new year is to encourage fiftieth anniversary commemorations of 1976 protests in 2026. More generally, this project builds on the work I completed for two of my recent books: The Stonewall Riots: A Documentary History (NYU Press, 2019) and Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement, 2nd edition (Routledge, 2023).

            Several San Francisco State University M.A. students and research assistants, including Mario Burrus, Sabrina Chamberlain, Victoria Duehring, Nicolette Kafetas, Adam Joseph Nichols, and Jennifer Zoland, worked on this project under my supervision; Dylan Weir (2022),  Ruth Truman (2023), and Zach Greenberg (2024-2025) helped compile, quantify, and analyze the results. Scott C. Seyworth supplied information about Wisconsin; Moira Armstrong about New Jersey and Ohio; Tim Retzloff about Michigan; and Mary Sprague about Washington state. As of October 2026 there are no plans to extend this project beyond 1976, but additions and corrections for 1965-1976 can be sent to me at marcs@sfsu.edu and a project extension is possible with adequate funding.

 

Chronology, Geography, and Highlights

            For the twelve years covered in this inventory, we have identified 1152 direct action events (averaging about 96 per year), though the number falls to 691 (averaging about 58 per year) if protests lasting for more than a single day and coordinated protests that occurred in multiple locations are each counted once. We include organized and visible LGBT contingents in non-LGBT actions, but not the many other non-LGBT actions in which individual LGBT people participated but not as members of LGBT contingents. Only direct action protests documented in mainstream, alternative, or LGBT print media are included here, which means that we have omitted several mentioned only in oral history interviews. In total, we cite more than 2,500 media sources. Media outlets routinely disagree when quantifying the number of participants in direct action protests, but the minimum numbers used by the sources listed here total 241,191; the maximum numbers total 509,698. The number would be lower if individuals who participated in more than one protest were each counted only once. LGBT direct action protests in this twelve-year period occurred, on average, every 3-4 days. The sources listed here indicate that at least 228 protesters were arrested; again, the number would be lower if individuals arrested more than once were each counted only once.

            The inventory both reinforces and challenges popular beliefs about the chronology and geography of LGBT direct action in the United States. For the twelve-year period, we have documented protests in 32 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, challenging the notion that these only occurred in New York, California, and a few other states. For 1965 through May 1969, we have identified 84 protests in four states and the District of Columbia. Beginning in April 1969 in San Francisco (not June in New York, as is commonly believed), the number and frequency of LGBT direct action protests increased dramatically. From August 1968 through March 1969, there were none, but there were more than 40 in April and May 1969. The total number rose from 6 in 1968 (averaging 1 every 60 days) to 117 in 1969 (averaging 1 every 3.1 days) and 178 in 1970 (averaging 1 every 2.1 days). After Stonewall, LGBT direct action also expanded in terms of participant numbers and geographic scope––for 1970, our sources count 12,000-62,000 participants in 21 cities across 10 states and Washington, D.C.

            In quantitative terms, 1970 and 1975 proved to be the highwater marks of LGBT direct action during this period. After 1970, the number of direct actions declined steadily for the next few years but then increased in 1974 and 1975: there were 144 in 1971 (1 every 2.5 days), 122 in 1972 (1 every 3 days), and 89 in 1973 (1 every 4.1 days), before increasing again to 120 in 1974 (1 every 3 days) and 238 in 1975 (1 every 1.5 days). The number then declined to 142 in 1976 (1 every 2.6 days), but this is still higher than the number in 1969 (117). This might suggest revisiting interpretations that suggest a decline in or a moderation of LGBT movement activism in the mid-1970s. In terms of participation numbers and geographic scope, LGBT direct action never returned to pre-Stonewall levels. Our sources document actions in 16 states and D.C. with 21,000-30,000 participants in 1971; 17 states and D.C. with 16,000-61,000 participants in 1972; 14 states and D.C. with 11,000-70,000 participants in 1973; 16 states and D.C. with 31,000-74,000 participants in 1974; 19 states, D.C., and Puerto Rico with 52,000-54,000 participants in 1975; and 20 states and D.C. with 93,000-153,000 participants in 1976.

            The following list of the top ten busiest months for unique actions, excluding pride events and counting multi-day protests just once, highlights both the significance of 1970 and the broader chronological range of post-Stonewall LGBT direct action:

  1. May 1970: 19 actions
  2. April 1970: 13 actions
  3. October 1970: 13 actions
  4. November 1971: 13 actions
  5. January 1972: 11 actions
  6. April 1972: 11 actions
  7. May 1974: 11 actions
  8. March 1970: 10 actions
  9. August 1970: 10 actions
  10. October 1974: 10 actions

           

            While LGBT direct action protests expanded to more and more states during the twelve-year period, the vast majority occurred in 6 cities in 5 states and D.C.: Los Angeles (214); New York City (182); San Francisco (178); Philadelphia (72); Chicago (59); and Washington, D.C. (51). Other significant sites included Detroit (41), Berkeley (21), Boston (21), Minneapolis (17), Ann Arbor (15), Seattle (14), Miami Beach (11), New Orleans (8), Madison (7), and Miami (6). (Kern River is listed below as the location of 13, but this number reflects a 13-day “camp in” in 1970; likewise, Ithaca is listed as the location of 25, but this reflects a 24-day demonstration in 1976; Urbana is listed as the location of 18, but this reflects a 17-day sit-in in 1976.) Of the 16 cities featuring the largest number of LGBT direct actions, most are among the largest cities in the country while three (Ann Arbor, Berkeley, and Madison) are the locations of major public universities. In total, the movement organized and participated in direct action protests in 99 cities during this period. The following is a comprehensive list of the cities where we have documented LGBT direct actions from 1965 through 1976 (the numbers here do not add up to 1006 because the locations of some protests were identifiable by state but not city):

  1. Los Angeles, CA (214)
  2. New York, NY (182)
  3. San Francisco, CA (178)
  4. Philadelphia, PA (72)
  5. Chicago, IL (59)
  6. Washington, D.C. (51)
  7. Detroit, MI (41)
  8. Ithaca, NY (25)
  9. Berkeley, CA (21)
  10. Boston, MA (21)
  11. Urbana, IL (18)
  12. Minneapolis, MN (17)
  13. Ann Arbor, MI (15)
  14. Seattle, WA (14)
  15. Kern River, CA (13)
  16. Miami Beach, FL (11)
  17. New Orleans, LA (8)
  18. Kansas City, MO (7)
  19. Madison, WI (7)
  20. Atlanta, GA (6)
  21. Columbus, OH (6)
  22. Dallas, TX (6)
  23. Miami, FL (6)
  24. Phoenix, AZ (6)
  25. San Juan, PR (6)
  26. Pittsburgh, PA (5)
  27. Akron, OH (4)
  28. Cleveland, OH (4)
  29. Denver, CO (4)
  30. Louisville, KY (4)
  31. Sacramento, CA (4)
  32. San Diego, CA (4)
  33. Steilacoom, WA (4)
  34. Albany, NY (3)
  35. Burbank, CA (3)
  36. Hackensack, NJ (3)
  37. Hauppauge, NY (3)
  38. New Haven, CT (3)
  39. Anaheim, CA (2)
  40. Austin, TX (2)
  41. Bridgeport, CT (2)
  42. Fullerton, CA (2)
  43. Lansing, MI (2)
  44. Nashville, TN (2)
  45. Portland, OR (2)
  46. Provincetown, MA (2)
  47. Rochester, NY (2)
  48. San Antonio, TX (2)
  49. Tallahassee, FL (2)
  50. Tucson, AZ (2)
  51. Vacaville, CA (2)
  52. Worcester, MA (2)
  53. Annapolis, MD (1)
  54. Arlington, VA (1)
  55. Ardmore, PA (1)
  56. Asbury Park, NJ (1)
  57. Atlantic City, NJ (1)
  58. Baltimore, MD (1)
  59. Bloomfield Hills, MI (1)
  60. Bloomington, IN (1)
  61. Buffalo, NY (1)
  62. Burlington, VT (1)
  63. Cambridge, MA (1)
  64. Cambridgeport, MA (1)
  65. Champaign, IL (1)
  66. Cincinnati, OH (1)
  67. Collingswood, NJ (1)
  68. Fort Dix, NJ (1)
  69. Fort Lauderdale (1)
  70. Gainesville, FL (1)
  71. Garden Grove, CA (1)
  72. Hartford, CT (1)
  73. Haverford, PA (1)
  74. Hayward, CA (1)
  75. Honolulu, HI (1)
  76. Houston, TX (1)
  77. Jackson, MS (1)
  78. Kern County, CA (1)
  79. Leavenworth, KS (1)
  80. Lynwood, WA (1)
  81. Merion, PA (1)
  82. New Hanover, NJ (1)
  83. Newtown, PA (1)
  84. Norman, OK (1)
  85. Oakland, CA (1)
  86. Oceanside, CA (1)
  87. Olympia, WA (1)
  88. Providence, RI (1)
  89. Riverhead, NY (1)
  90. Saint Paul, MN (1)
  91. Salem, OR (1)
  92. San Jose (1)
  93. San Pedro, CA (1)
  94. Santa Cruz, CA (1)
  95. Southfield, MI (1)
  96. Springfield, IL (1)
  97. Springfield, MO (1)
  98. Troy, MI (1)
  99. Wells, ME (1)

 

            As noted above, over the course of the twelve-year period, LGBT direct action protests occurred in 32 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico; most of the states were coastal and/or featured large cities. Beyond the coasts, the seven states with the largest numbers had major cities: Chicago, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Columbus, Ohio; Minneapolis, Minnesota; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Phoenix, Arizona. The following is a full list of the states/districts where we have identified LGBT direct actions:

  1. California (459)
  2. New York (224)
  3. Pennsylvania (81)
  4. Illinois (79)
  5. Michigan (61)
  6. District of Columbia (51)
  7. Massachusetts (27)
  8. Florida (21)
  9. Washington (20)
  10. Minnesota (18)
  11. Ohio (15)
  12. Arizona (13)
  13. Texas (11)
  14. Louisiana (8)
  15. Missouri (8)
  16. New Jersey (7)
  17. Wisconsin (7)
  18. Connecticut (6)
  19. Georgia (6)
  20. Puerto Rico (6)
  21. Colorado (4)
  22. Kentucky (4)
  23. Oregon (3)
  24. Tennessee (2)
  25. Hawaii (1)
  26. Indiana (1)
  27. Kansas (1)
  28. Mississippi (1)
  29. Oklahoma (1)
  30. Rhode Island (1)
  31. Vermont (1)
  32. Virginia (1)

 

            In terms of participation numbers, the top ten actions were all pride events in New York, San Francisco, or Los Angeles, but note that media reports of numbers diverged greatly, in part because of disagreements about whom to count as, and whether to count, spectators:

  1. 27 June 1976: San Francisco Pride, 75,000-120,000 participants
  2. 30 June 1974: New York Pride, 4,000-43,000 participants
  3. 24 June 1973: San Francisco Pride, 2,000-40,000 participants
  4. 28 June 1970: Los Angeles Pride, 1,200-30,000 participants
  5. 25 June 1972: San Francisco Pride, 1,000-25,000 participants
  6. 30 June 1975: New York Pride, 25,000 participants
  7. 30 June 1974: San Francisco Pride, 20,000 participants
  8. 24 June 1973: New York Pride, 3,000-20,000 participants
  9. 28 June 1970: New York Pride, 2,000-20,000 participants
  10. 27 June 1976: New York Pride, 10,000-15,000 participants

 

            Excluding pride events, the ten direct actions that featured the largest number of participants, most of which have received limited scholarly attention, were as follows:

  1. 11 July 1976: New York State Coalition for Gay Organizations march in New York, 780-4,000 participants
  2. 14 March 1971: March on the New York State Capitol in Albany by the Tri-Cities Gay Liberation Front and other groups, 1000-3000 participants
  3. 28 June-3 July 1969: LGBT riots to protest a police raid on the Stonewall Inn in New York, 500-3000 participants
  4. 5 April 1970: Gay Liberation Front Los Angeles “Gay-In” at Griffith Park, 2000 participants
  5. 29-30 August 1970: Gay Activists Alliance New York and Gay Liberation Front New York demonstration and march from Times Square to the Women’s House of Detention to protest police harassment and violence, 2000 participants
  6. 25 August 1972: Dyke Separatists, GAA Lesbians, and other feminist groups march and rally for women’s rights in New York, 2000 participants
  7. 4 May 1974: LGBT rally for equal rights on Christopher Street in Greenwich Village, New York, 1000 participants
  8. 30 May 1970: Gay Liberation Front Los Angeles “Gay-In” at Griffith Park, 500-1000 participants
  9. 25 July 1971: Gay Activists Alliance New York march and demonstration in Greenwich Village to protest police raids on gay bars, 1000 participants
  10. 8 May 1976: Coalition Against Supreme Court Oppression march in San Francisco, 600-1,000 participants

 

            The largest numbers of arrests occurred at the following direct action protests:

  1. 28 June-3 July 1969: LGBT riots to protest a police raid on the Stonewall Inn in New York, 21-22 arrests
  2. 18-23 August 1972: LGBT demonstrations at Republican Party National Convention in Miami, 20 arrests
  3. 29-30 August 1970: Gay Activists Alliance and Gay Liberation Front demonstrations and march from Times Square to the Women's House of Detention in New York to protest police harassment and violence, 18 arrests
  4. 31 October 1969: Committee for Homosexual Freedom and Gay Liberation Front San Francisco demonstration against anti-LGBT bias at San Francisco Examiner and sit-in to protest police violence at City Hall, 15 arrests
  5. 28 November 1970: Gay Liberation Front protest at Zephyr Restaurant during Black Panthers Revolutionary People’s Constitutional Convention in DC, 12 arrests
  6. 3 September 1971: Kalos Society demonstration against anti-lesbian discrimination at LaRosa Park West bar in Hartford, 10 arrests
  7. 3 October 1971: Gay Activists Alliance New York march to home of City Councilman Saul Sharison, 6-10 arrests
  8. 30 April 1973: Gay Activists Alliance New York demonstration at City Council meeting, 10 arrests
  9. 21-25 June 1971: Gay Activists Alliance New York, Daughters of Bilitis New York, and RL-NY demonstrations at City Hall, 9 arrests
  10. 25-26 January 1972: Gay Activists Alliance New York sit-in at Lindsay presidential campaign headquarters, 8 arrests

 

            The ten most sustained actions, including consecutive and non-consecutive days of protest, were as follows:

  1. 1 May-31 October 1975: LGBT strike and weekday demonstrations at Gay Community Services Center in Los Angeles after firing of LGBT workers, 68 days
  2. 9 April-26 June 1969: Committee for Homosexual Freedom demonstrations against the firing of an openly gay employee at States Steamship Company in San Francisco, 49 days
  3. 25 July-15 August 1970: Society for Individual Rights, Tavern Guild, and Gay Liberation Front San Francisco daily demonstrations against bathroom arrests at Macy’s, 21 days
  4. 2-19 March 1976: Seventeen-day sit-in to protest anti-LGBT police harassment at Urbana City Building in Urbana, Illinois, 17 days
  5. 16 September-2 October 1974: Fast in Detroit to atone for Catholic Church persecution, 16 days
  6. 29 August-10 September 1970: Gay “Camp-In” at Yokut Group Camp on the Kern River in California, 13 days
  7. 15 October-30 November 1971: Gay Liberation Front DC, Gay Activists Alliance DC, MSW, and MCC-DC demonstrations against anti-trans, racist, and sexist discrimination at Lost and Found in DC, 12 days
  8. 24 April-4 May 1971: LGBT participation in antiwar demonstrations in DC, 11 days
  9. 28 June-7 July 1970: Ten-day gay vigil and fast at Federal Building in Los Angeles, 10 days
  10. 7-15 April 1972: LGBT march for state law reform from New York City to Albany and demonstration at state capitol, 9 days

 

            The six actions sustained over the longest period of time were as follows:

  1. 4 July 1965-1969: Annual Reminder demonstrations in Philadelphia, annual for 5 years
  2. 7 February 1970-25 November 1971: Demonstrations against discrimination at Barney's Beanery, 1 year 9 months
  3. 1 May-31 October 1975: LGBT strike and weekday demonstrations at Gay Community Services Center in Los Angeles after firing of LGBT workers, 6 months
  4. 9 April-26 June, 2 July-6 August 1969: Committee for Homosexual Freedom demonstrations against the firing of an openly gay employee at States Steamship Company in San Francisco, 4 months
  5. 15 October-30 November 1971: Demonstrations at Lost and Found in DC, 1.5 months
  6. 25 July-15 August 1970: Society for Individual Rights, Tavern Guild, and Gay Liberation Front San Francisco daily demonstrations against bathroom arrests at Macy’s, 3 weeks

 

Targets

            The targets of LGBT direct action were diverse, but we have identified several noteworthy patterns. Using fourteen categories and counting each protest more than once if more than one category was applicable, our sources indicate that businesses were the most common targets of LGBT direct action. These included bars, restaurants, department stores, and public utilities, which were criticized for employment discrimination, denials of service, mistreatment of patrons, sexual censorship, and discriminatory practices affecting women, people of color, and trans people. The number of business targets would have been even greater if we had counted many of the media targets as businesses, which they were. The second most frequent targets of LGBT direct action were national, state, and local government buildings and policies. LGBT targets, including organizations and businesses, were third. Pride events, marches, and parades were fourth. Police and policing practices were fifth. The full range of targets and associated numbers were as follows:

  1. Businesses (307)
  2. National, state, and local government policies and buildings, including courts (204)
  3. LGBT targets, including organizations and businesses (177)
  4. Pride events, marches, parades, and protests (150)
  5. Police and policing (129)
  6. Media (including newspapers, magazines, film, radio, television), arts, and culture (98)
  7. Electoral politics, including politicians, public officials, and political parties (74)
  8. Religion, religious institutions, and religious policies (73)
  9. Universities, colleges, schools, and educational institutions (64)
  10. Military, militarism, and war (58)
  11. Prisons and jails (39)
  12. Science, medicine, psychology, and psychiatry (35)
  13. Gay-ins and other LGBT gatherings (27)
  14. Miscellaneous (26)

 

            Businesses: Some of the earliest targets were businesses: Dewey’s restaurant in Philadelphia (1965); Julius bar in New York (1966); Compton’s Cafeteria in San Francisco (twice in 1966); the Black Cat bar in Los Angeles (1966); the Redd Foxx Club in Los Angeles (1967); and the Patch bar in Los Angeles (1968). From 13 business-oriented protests in 1965-68 the number grew significantly to 74 in 1969 before falling to 59, 37, 24, 28, 21, and 13 in the next six years. In 1976, number grew again to 38.

            Government Buildings and Policies: Compared to the yearly numbers for business protests, which peaked in 1969 and then declined, the numbers for government-oriented protests were relatively steady: 19 in 1965-68, then 12, 21, 30, and 27 in the next four years before falling to 10 in 1973, then rising again to 23 in 1974, 34 in 1975, and 28 in 1976. Protesters returned to some of the same iconic government buildings multiple times; many of these were federal buildings, state capitols, city halls, and local courthouses. Pre-Stonewall targets included the White House 5 times, Independence Hall 4 times, the California State Fair in Sacramento 2 times; and the Federal Building in San Francisco, United Nations, U.S. Civil Service Commission, U.S. State Department, and Pentagon 1 time each. Protests at government buildings commonly focused on civil service, immigration, and military policies at the federal level, along with state sodomy laws, state liquor licensing laws, local cross-dressing laws, local anti-discrimination laws, local censorship practices, and local policing.

            Pride: LGBT people began to commemorate the 1969 Stonewall rebellion in 1970; for that year we have identified 17 pride marches, parades, and protests in Chicago, San Francisco, New York, Los Angeles, and Provincetown. The number grew to 23 in 1971 and 23 in 1972 before falling back to 18 in 1973. The number rose again to 27 in 1974 before falling to 19 in 1975 and 23 in 1976. (Note that we do not include pride events that do not involve direct action.) In total, there were pride marches, parades, and protests in 37 cities from 1970 to 1976. Of these, 11 were in the Northeast; 9 were in the Midwest; 10 were in the West;  and 7 were in the South and Southwest. This illustrates the geographic breadth of pride events in the years from 1970 to 1976, though the largest were on the East and West Coasts.

            Police and Policing: Direct action protests that targeted the police and policing began in the 1960s, peaked in 1970, and then declined significantly in the next five years before rising in 1976. There were 13 protests against the police in the 1965-69 era, 39 in 1970, and 20, 6, 9, 9, and 10 in the next five years. In 1976, protests targeting police and policing more than doubled to 23. Protesters in the 1960s challenged police practices at Compton’s Cafeteria and the San Francisco Examiner in San Francisco; the Black Cat and Patch bars in Los Angeles; Aquatic Park in Berkeley; and the Stonewall Inn in New York. LGBT direct action protesters continued to target police practices in these four cities in subsequent years, but expanded their targets in 1970 to Chicago (IL); in 1971 to Detroit (MI), Bridgeport (CT), Hauppauge (NY), Riverhead (NY), and Gainesville (FL); and in 1972-1976 to Arlington (VA), Washington (DC), Seattle (WA), Madison (WI), Philadelphia (PA), San Diego (CA), Orange Grove (CA), Urbana (IL), Akron (OH), Dallas (TX), and Jackson (MS).

            LGBT Businesses and Organizations: LGBT direct action protests against LGBT businesses and organizations began with 3 in 1966–1968 (targets included Julius bar in New York and the Black Cat and Patch bars in Los Angeles). They continued with 8 in 1969 (including the Stonewall Inn in New York and the Society for Individual Rights and the Tavern Guild in San Francisco), rose to 23 in 1970 and 19 in 1971, and then fell to 3 in 1972, 8 in 1973, 8 in 1974, and 4 in 1976. The year 1975 was anomalous with 101 protests, but the number would be 9 if the Gay Community Services Center protests in Los Angeles were counted as 1.

            Media, Arts, and Culture: LGBT direct action protests began targeting newspapers in 1966: one targeted the Brooklyn Heights Press and one targeted the Chicago Daily News and Chicago Sun-Times. In 1969, there were 4 media-oriented protests against the Village Voice and TIME magazine in New York, San Francisco Examiner, and Los Angeles Times.

            While the earliest LGBT direct action media protests focused on newspapers and magazines, this expanded to include television, film, and other types of targets in 1970, when the number of protests against media, arts, and culture targets grew to 13. There were 6 in 1971 and 9 in 1972 before peaking at 21 in 1973 and 21 in 1974 and then falling to 10 in 1975 and 12 in 1976.

            Electoral Politics: LGBT direct action activists began targeting electoral politics in 1969, when they disrupted two events featuring New York City mayoral candidates. The number of protests grew to 12 in 1970 and 8 in 1971 before peaking at 33 in 1972. After falling back to 3 in 1973, 1 in 1974, and none in 1975, they rose again to 15 in 1976. The peaks in 1972 and 1976 correspond to national and presidential elections.

            The protests in 1970 focused on U.S. Vice President Spiro Agnew, New York State Governor Nelson Rockefeller, New York State gubernatorial candidates, New York City Mayor John Lindsay, New York City Council members, and the New York State Republican Committee. In 1971 they promoted the congressional candidacy of gay activist Frank Kameny in D.C. and targeted U.S. President Richard Nixon; a New York City Council member; Philadelphia mayoral candidates Frank Rizzo and Thacher Longstreth; and Illinois gubernatorial candidate Thomas Foran. In 1972, LGBT direct action protests targeted Nixon’s campaign headquarters and a Nixon campaign fundraising event in Philadelphia; Agnew; and a set of U.S. presidential and vice-presidential candidates, including former U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, U.S. Vice Presidential candidate Sargent Shriver, U.S. Senator George McGovern, U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie, and Mayor Lindsay. In that year LGBT direct action protesters also targeted an Illinois gubernatorial candidate, the Pennsylvania Republican State Committee, the New York State Senate Majority Leader, the New York City District Attorney, a New York City Council member, and the Democratic and Republican Party National Conventions in Miami and Miami Beach. Targets in 1973 included Philadelphia District Attorney Arlen Specter and the Republican members of the Ann Arbor City Council. The lone 1974 target was President Gerald Ford. Targets in 1976 included U.S. Senate candidate S.I. Hayakawa, the Democratic and Republican National Conventions in New York City and Kansas City, U.S. Senator Henry Jackson, and U.S. presidential candidate George Wallace.

            Military, Militarism, and War: LGBT direct action protests against the military, militarism, and war began in 1965-66, when there were 7, including 1 at the Pentagon in 1965 and 5 at nationally-coordinated protests on Armed Forces Day in 1966. Some of the government-oriented protests discussed above for 1965-68 referenced antigay military policies as well. Military-oriented protests resumed in 1969, when there were 10. While the pre-1969 protests focused on antigay military policies, most of the 1969 and post-1969 ones were antiwar demonstrations and marches. The total numbers grew to 17 in 1970 and 17 in 1971 before falling to 5 in 1972 and 2 in 1973. We identified none from 1974 to 1976, perhaps because of developments related to the Vietnam War.

            Religion: LGBT direct action targeted religion, religious institutions, and religious policies 73 times in this twelve-year period, beginning with an isolated protest at Grace Cathedral (Episcopalian) in San Francisco in 1965. After a single church action in Berkeley in 1969, the number of religiously-oriented direct action protests grew to 9 in 1970 and 11 in 1971 (primarily in California), fell to 2 in 1972 and 0 in 1973, and then increased dramatically to 32 in 1974 before falling again to 5 in 1975 and 12 in 1976. The relatively large number in 1974 may have reflected growing opposition to the rise of the anti-LGBT Christian Right.

            Educational Institutions: From 1 in 1966, 2 in 1968, and 3 in 1969, the number of educationally-oriented direct action protests grew to 22 in 1970 before falling to 8 in 1971, 12 in 1972, 5 in 1973, 2 in 1974, 5 in 1975, and 4 in 1976. The earliest college and university targets were the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966, Columbia University in 1968, and Bucks County Community College (in Pennsylvania) in 1968. The University of California, Berkeley, was targeted repeatedly in 1969 and 1970. Other targets in 1970 included the University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles City College; New York University; and Catholic University in D.C.

            Science: LGBT direct action protests began to target science, medicine, psychology, and psychiatry in 1968, when there were protests at a psychiatric panel at Columbia University in New York and the American Medical Association convention in San Francisco. There were no direct action protests against scientific, medical, psychological, and psychiatric targets in 1969, but annual totals were 7, 7, 9, 4, 3, 1, and 2 from 1970 to 1976. Many of these protests targeted the American Psychiatric Association’s annual conventions.

            Prisons and Jails: LGBT direct action did not target prisons and jails until after the Stonewall rebellion of 1969. There were 10 protests in the second half of 1969 (all at the Women’s House of Detention in New York), 4 in 1970, 5 in 1971, 7 in 1972,  4 in 1973, and 1 in 1974. There was one target identified for 1975 and 7 in 1976.

            Gay-Ins: Of the 27 “gay-ins” identified, most took place in California in 1970 and 1971, and many were quite large. None were identified for 1975 or 1976, perhaps reflecting the general decline of this type of countercultural activism.

 

Conclusions

            We hope that this overview and the accompanying bibliography, chronology, and inventory will inspire further research on the long history of LGBT direct action, in and beyond the United States. At the very least, we think that documenting more than 1150 LGBT direct action protests from 1965 to 1976 demonstrates the significance of a multifaceted movement encompassing a broad geography, not an isolated moment at a single location. The Stonewall Riots were important, but a long, sustained, and powerful movement, which paraded, picketed, and protested, changed the country and the world.

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